Albert Einstein ( /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics and one of the most prolific intellects in human history.^[2][3] While best known for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc², he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".^[4] The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory within physics.

Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole.^[5]

He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, and did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He settled in the U.S., becoming a citizen in 1940.^[6] On the eve of World War II, he helped alert President Franklin D. Roosevelt that Germany might be developing an atomic weapon, and recommended that the U.S. begin similar research; this eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project. Einstein was in support of defending the Allied forces, but largely denounced using the new discovery of nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, together with Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.

Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works.^[5][7] His great intelligence and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with genius.^[8]

Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire on 14 March 1879.^[9] His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (née Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.^[9]

The Einsteins were non-observant Jews. Albert attended a Catholic elementary school from the age of five for three years. Later, at the age of eight, Einstein was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left Germany seven years later.^[10] Although it has been thought that Einstein had early speech difficulties, this is disputed by the Albert Einstein Archives, and he excelled at the first school that he attended.^[11]

His father once showed him a pocket compass; Einstein realized that there must be something causing the needle to move, despite the apparent "empty space".^[12] As he grew, Einstein built models and mechanical devices for fun and began to show a talent for mathematics.^[9] When Einstein was ten years old Max Talmud (later changed to Max Talmey), a poor Jewish medical student from Poland, was introduced to the Einstein family by his brother, and during weekly visits over the next five years he gave the boy popular books on science, mathematical texts and philosophical writings. These included Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's Elements (which Einstein called the "holy little geometry book").^{[13][14][fn 1]}

In 1894, his father's company failed: direct current (DC) lost the War of Currents to alternating current (AC). In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then, a few months later, to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict rote learning. At the end of December 1894 he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.^[16] It was during his time in Italy in 1895 without formal schooling that he wrote a short essay with the title "On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field."^[17][18]

In late summer 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in Zurich (later the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule). He failed to reach the required standard in several subjects, but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics.^[19] On the advice of the Principal of the Polytechnic, he attended the Aargau Cantonal School in Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895-96 to complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister Maja later married the Wintelers' son, Paul.)^[20] In January 1896, with his father's approval, he renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service.^[21] In September 1896 he passed the Swiss Matura with mostly good grades (gaining maximum grade 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, on a scale 1-6),^[22] and though still only seventeen he enrolled in the four year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Zurich Polytechnic. Marie Winteler moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post.

Einstein's future wife, Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the Polytechnic that same year, the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein and Marić's friendship developed into romance, and they read books together on extra-curricular physics in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900 Einstein was awarded the Zurich Polytechnic teaching diploma, but Marić failed the examination with a poor grade in the mathematics component, theory of functions.^[23] There have been claims that Marić collaborated with Einstein on his celebrated 1905 papers,^[24][25] but historians of physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions.^{[26][27][28][29]}

Marriages and children

Main article: Einstein family

In early 1902, Einstein and Mileva Marić (Милева Марић) had a daughter they named Lieserl in their correspondence, who was born in Novi Sad where Marić's parents lived.^[30] Her full name is not known, and her fate is uncertain after 1903.^[31]

Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, the couple's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in Zurich in July 1910. In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin, while his wife remained in Zurich with their sons. Marić and Einstein divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years.

Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal (née Einstein) on 2 June 1919, after having had a relationship with her since 1912. She was his first cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated permanently to the United States. In 1935, Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems and died in December 1936.^[32]

Patent office

Left to right: Conrad Habicht, Maurice Solovine and Einstein, who founded the Olympia Academy

Einstein's home in Bern

After graduating, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post, but a former classmate's father helped him secure a job in Bern, at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the patent office, as an assistant examiner.^[33] He evaluated patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".^[34]

Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.^[35]

With a few friends he met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group, self-mockingly named "The Olympia Academy", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings included the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.

Acade

Einstein's official 1921 portrait after receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics.

During 1901 the paper Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen was published in the prestigious Annalen der Physik.^[36] On 30 April 1905, Einstein completed his thesis, with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor. Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. His dissertation was entitled "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions".^[37][38] That same year, which has been called Einstein's annus mirabilis (miracle year), he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of matter and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world.

By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist, and he was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern. The following year, he quit the patent office and the lectureship to take the position of physics docent ^[39] at the University of Zurich. He became a full professor at Karl-Ferdinand University in Prague in 1911. In 1914, he returned to Germany after being appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (1914–1932)^[40] and a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, with a special clause in his contract that freed him from most teaching obligations. He became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. In 1916, Einstein was appointed president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918).^[41][42]

During 1911, he had calculated that, based on his new theory of general relativity, light from another star would be bent by the Sun's gravity. That prediction was claimed confirmed by observations made by a British expedition led by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919. International media reports of this made Einstein world famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".^[43] (Much later, questions were raised whether the measurements had been accurate enough to support Einstein's theory).

During 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect, as Relativity was considered still somewhat controversial, receiving also the Copley Medal from the Royal Society during 1925.

Travels abroad

Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by the Mayor, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to deliver several lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University, and in Washington he accompanied representatives of the National Academy of Science on a visit to the White House. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual and political figures, and delivered a lecture at Kings College.^[44]

In 1922, he traveled throughout Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour. His travels included Singapore, Ceylon, and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. His first lecture in Tokyo lasted four hours, after which he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace where thousands came to watch. Einstein later gave his impressions of the Japanese in a letter to his sons:^[45]:307 "Of all the people I have met, I like the Japanese most, as they are modest, intelligent, considerate, and have a feel for art."^[45]:308

On his return voyage, he also visited Palestine for 12 days in what would become his only visit to that region. "He was greeted with great British pomp, as if he were a head of state rather than a theoretical physicist", writes Isaacson. This included a cannon salute upon his arrival at the residence of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception given to him, the building was "stormed by throngs who wanted to hear him". In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed his happiness over the event:

I consider this the greatest day of my life. Before, I have always found something to regret in the Jewish soul, and that is the forgetfulness of its own people. Today, I have been made happy by the sight of the Jewish people learning to recognize themselves and to make themselves recognized as a force in the world.^[46]:308.

EmigrationIn 1933, Einstein decided to emigrate to the United States due to the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.^[47] While visiting American universities in April, 1933, he learned that the new German government had passed a law barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. A month later, the Nazi book burnings occurred, with Einstein's works being among those burnt, and Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaimed, "Jewish intellectualism is dead."^[46] Einstein also learned that his name was on a list of assassination targets, with a "$5,000 bounty on his head." One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged".^[46]

Einstein was undertaking his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology when Hitler came to power in Germany. On his return to Europe in March 1933 he resided in Belgium for some months, before temporarily moving to England.^[48]

He took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey,^[49] an affiliation that lasted until his death in 1955. He was one of the four first selected (two of the others being John von Neumann and Kurt Gödel). At the institute, he soon developed a close friendship with Gödel. The two would take long walks together discussing their work. His last assistant was Bruria Kaufman, who later became a renowned physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully.

Other scientists also fled to America. Among them were Nobel laureates and professors of theoretical physics. With so many other Jewish scientists now forced by circumstances to live in America, often working side by side, Einstein wrote to a friend, "For me the most beautiful thing is to be in contact with a few fine Jews—a few millennia of a civilized past do mean something after all." In another letter he writes, "In my whole life I have never felt so Jewish as now."^[46]

World War II and the Manhattan Project

In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included emigre physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington of ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted.^[50] Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon."^[45]:630[51] In the summer of 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Einstein was persuaded to lend his prestige by writing a letter with Szilárd to President Franklin D. Roosevelt to alert him of the possibility. The letter also recommended that the U.S. government pay attention to and become directly involved in uranium research and associated chain reaction research.

The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II".^[52] President Roosevelt could not take the risk of allowing Hitler to possess atomic bombs first. As a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the U.S. entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the Manhattan Project. It became the only country to develop an atomic bomb during World War II.

For Einstein, "war was a disease . . . [and] he called for resistance to war." But in 1933, after Hitler assumed full power in Germany, "he renounced pacifism altogether . . . In fact, he urged the Western powers to prepare themselves against another German onslaught."^[53]:110 In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life — when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification — the danger that the Germans would make them..."^[54]

U.S. citizenship appreciation of the "meritocracy" in American culture when compared to Europe. According to Isaacson, he recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased", without social barriers, and as result, the individual was "encouraged" to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education. Einstein writes:

What makes the new arrival devoted to this country is the democratic trait among the people. No one humbles himself before another person or class. . . American youth has the good fortune not to have its outlook troubled by outworn traditions.^{[46]:432As a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People NAACP at Princeton who campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans, Einstein corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois, and in 1946 Einstein called racism America's "worst disease".[55] He later stated, "Race prejudice has unfortunately become an American tradition which is uncritically handed down from one generation to the next. The only remedies are enlightenment and education".[56]}

After the death of Israel's first president, Chaim Weizmann, in November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of President of Israel, a mostly ceremonial post.^[57] The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons".^[45]:522 However, Einstein declined, and wrote in his response that he was "deeply moved", and "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it:

All my life I have dealt with objective matters, hence I lack both the natural aptitude and the experience to deal properly with people and to exercise official function. I am the more distressed over these circumstances because my relationship with the Jewish people became my strongest human tie once I achieved complete clarity about our precarious position among the nations of the world.^{[45]:522[57][58]}

Death aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Dr. Rudolph Nissen in 1948.^[59] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.^[60] Einstein refused surgery, saying: "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."^[61] He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.

During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, Thomas Stoltz Harvey, removed Einstein's brain for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.^[62] Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.^[63][64]

In his lecture at Einstein's memorial, nuclear physicist Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of him as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness . . . There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn."^[53]

Scientific career

Albert Einstein in 1904

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Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.^[7][9] In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others.^[65]

1905 - Annus Mirabilis papers

Main articles: Annus Mirabilis papers, Photoelectric effect, Special theory of relativity, and Mass–energy equivalence

The Annus Mirabilis papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum theory), Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc² that Albert Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The four papers are:

Title (translated)	Area of focus	Received	Published	Significance
On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light	Photoelectric effect	18 March	9 June	Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting energy existed in discrete quanta rather than continuous levels. The theory of quanta was either pivotal to, or gave rise to, quantum theory.
On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat	Brownian motion	11 May	18 July	Empirical evidence for the atom, substantial support to the novel area of statistical physics.
On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies	Special relativity	30 June	26 Sept	Reconciled Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light. Hypothesized the speed of light as being independent of the frame of reference and an "upper limit" on velocity and information transmission in non-esoteric situations, discredited the concept of an "luminiferous ether", and the significance of frames of reference in physics.
Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?	Matter–energy equivalence	27 Sept	21 Nov	Equivalence of matter and energy, E = mc2 (and by implication, the ability of gravity—and matter generally—to "bend" light), the existence of "rest energy", and the basis of nuclear energy (the conversion of matter to energy by humans and in the cosmos).

Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics

Main articles: Statistical mechanics, thermal fluctuations, and statistical physics

Albert Einstein's first paper^[66] submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik was on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 titled Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen, which was translated as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion. These published calculations (1905) showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.^[66]

General principles

He articulated the principle of relativity. This was understood by Hermann Minkowski to be a generalization of rotational invariance from space to space-time. Other principles postulated by Einstein and later vindicated are the principle of equivalence and the principle of adiabatic invariance of the quantum number.

Theory of relativity and

Main article: History of special relativity

Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciles Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics, by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light. This later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity.

Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a moving body appearing to slow down and contract (in the direction of motion) when measured in the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether – one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time – was superfluous.^[67]

In his paper on mass–energy equivalence Einstein produced E = mc² from his special relativity equations.^[68] Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.^[69][70]

Photons and energy quanta

Main articles: Photon and Quantum

In a 1905 paper,^[71] Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering.

Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.^[72]

Quantized atomic vibrations

Main article: Einstein solid

In 1907 Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently – a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be different, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model.^[73]

Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables

Main article: Old quantum theory

Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements.

Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics. The law that the action variable is quantized was a basic principle of the quantum theory as it was known between 1900 and 1925.^{[citation needed]}

Wave–particle duality

Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a privatdozent at the University of Bern.^[74] In "über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics.

Theory of critical opalescence

Main article: Critical opalescence

Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Raleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.^[75] Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.

Zero-point energy

Main article: Zero-point energy

Einstein's physical intuition led him to note that Planck's oscillator energies had an incorrect zero point. He modified Planck's hypothesis by stating that the lowest energy state of an oscillator is equal to ¹⁄₂hf, to half the energy spacing between levels. This argument, which was made in 1913 in collaboration with Otto Stern, was based on the thermodynamics of a diatomic molecule which can split apart into two free atoms.

General relativity and the Equivalence Principle

Main article: History of general relativity

See also: Principle of equivalence, Theory of relativity, and Einstein field equations

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General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape.

As Albert Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.^[76] So in 1908 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article, he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a freefalling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the Equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomenon of gravitational time dilation. In 1911, Einstein published another article expanding on the 1907 article, in which additional effects such as the deflection of light by massive bodies were predicted.

Hole argument and Entwurf theory

Main article: Hole argument

While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.

In June, 1913 the Entwurf ("draft") theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. Simultaneously less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, after more than two years of intensive work Einstein abandoned the theory in November, 1915 after realizing that the hole argument was mistaken.^[77]

Cosmology

Main article: Cosmology

In 1917, Einstein applied the General theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole. He wanted the universe to be eternal and unchanging, but this type of universe is not consistent with relativity. To fix this, Einstein modified the general theory by introducing a new notion, the cosmological constant. With a positive cosmological constant, the universe could be an eternal static sphere.^[78]

Einstein believed a spherical static universe is philosophically preferred, because it would obey Mach's principle. He had shown that general relativity incorporates Mach's principle to a certain extent in frame dragging by gravitomagnetic fields, but he knew that Mach's idea would not work if space goes on forever. In a closed universe, he believed that Mach's principle would hold. Mach's principle has generated much controversy over the years.

Modern quantum theory

Main article: Schrödinger equation

In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser.^[79] This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work, and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.

Bose–Einstein statistics

Main article: Bose–Einstein condensation

In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.^[80] It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.^[81] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.^[65]

Energy momentum pseudotensor

Main article: Stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor

General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.

Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.

The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others.

Unified field theory

Main article: Classical unified field theories

Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as another aspect of a single entity. In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a Scientific American article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation".^[82] Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification. Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of everything and in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.

Wormholes

Main article: Wormhole

Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a wormhole. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches.

If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.

Einstein–Cartan theory

Main article: Einstein–Cartan theory

In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.

Equations of motion

Main article: Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations

The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law – the Einstein equations which describe how space curves, the geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations.

Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself.

This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects.

Other investigations

Main article: Einstein's unsuccessful investigations

Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, gravitational waves, and other research. Please see the main article for details.

Collaboration with other scientists

In addition to long time collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.

Einstein–de Haas experiment

Main article: Einstein–de Haas effect

Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.

Schrödinger gas model

Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it.

This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.^[83]

Einstein refrigerator

Main article: Einstein refrigerator

In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.^[84] On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1,781,541 was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, as the most promising of their patents were quickly bought up by the Swedish company Electrolux to protect its refrigeration technology from competition.^[85]

Bohr versus Einstein

Main article: Bohr–Einstein debates of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science.^[86][87][88]

Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox

Main article: EPR paradox

In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner could be discovered without disturbing it in any way.

He then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude that the other particle had these properties already determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to determine what the answer to a position or momentum measurement would be, without in any way disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has values of position or momentum.

This principle distilled the essence of Einstein's objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it was shown to be incorrect when the Aspect experiment of 1982 confirmed Bell's theorem, which had been promulgated in 1964.

Political and religious views

Main articles: Albert Einstein's political views and Albert Einstein's religious views

Albert Einstein's political views emerged publicly in the middle of the 20th century due to his fame and reputation for genius. Einstein offered to and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics (see main article).

Einstein's views about religious belief have been collected from interviews and original writings. These views covered Judaism, theological determinism, agnosticism, and humanism. He also wrote much about ethical culture, opting for Spinoza's god over belief in a personal god.

Non-scientific legacy

While travelling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986^[89]). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.^[90]

Einstein bequeathed the royalties from use of his image to The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.^[91]

In popular culture

Main article: Albert Einstein in popular culture

In the period before World War II, Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."^[92]

Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.^[93] He is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. TIME magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true".^[94]

Awards and honors

Main article: Einstein's awards and honors

Einstein received numerous awards and honors, including the Nobel Prize in Physics.

Publications

The following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein.

Einstein, Albert (1901), "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen (Conclusions Drawn from the Phenomena of Capillarity)", Annalen der Physik 4 (3): 513, Bibcode 1901AnP...309..513E, doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306

Einstein, Albert (1905a), "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt (On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light)", Annalen der Physik 17 (6): 132–148, Bibcode 1905AnP...322..132E, doi:10.1002/andp.19053220607, http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/einstein-papers/1905_17_132-148.pdf This annus mirabilis paper on the photoelectric effect was received by Annalen der Physik 18 March.

Einstein, Albert (1905b), A new determination of molecular dimensions . This PhD thesis was completed 30 April and submitted 20 July.

Einstein, Albert (1905c), "On the Motion – Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat – of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid", Annalen der Physik 17 (8): 549–560, Bibcode 1905AnP...322..549E, doi:10.1002/andp.19053220806 . This annus mirabilis paper on Brownian motion was received 11 May.

Einstein, Albert (1905d), "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", Annalen der Physik 17 (10): 891–921, Bibcode 1905AnP...322..891E, doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004 . This annus mirabilis paper on special relativity was received 30 June.

Einstein, Albert (1905e), "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", Annalen der Physik 18 (13): 639–641, Bibcode 1905AnP...323..639E, doi:10.1002/andp.19053231314 . This annus mirabilis paper on mass-energy equivalence was received 27 September.

Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation (The Field Equations of Gravitation)", Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften: 844–847

Einstein, Albert (1917a), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie (Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity)", Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften

Einstein, Albert (1917b), "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation)", Physikalische Zeitschrift 18: 121–128, Bibcode 1917PhyZ...18..121E

Einstein, Albert (11 July 1923), "Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity", Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company, http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-lecture.pdf, retrieved 25 March 2007

Einstein, Albert (1924), "Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases (Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases)", Sitzungsberichte der Preussichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse: 261–267 . First of a series of papers on this topic.

Einstein, Albert (1926), "Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flussläufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes", Die Naturwissenschaften 14 (11): 223–224, Bibcode 1926NW.....14..223E, doi:10.1007/BF01510300 . On Baer's law and meanders in the courses of rivers.

Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (15 May 1935), "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?", Physical Review 47 (10): 777–780, Bibcode 1935PhRv...47..777E, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777

Einstein, Albert (1940), "On Science and Religion", Nature (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic) 146 (3706): 605, Bibcode 1940Natur.146..605E, doi:10.1038/146605a0, ISBN 0707304539

Einstein, Albert et al. (4 December 1948), "To the editors", New York Times (Melville, NY: AIP, American Inst. of Physics), ISBN 0735403597, http://phys4.harvard.edu/~wilson/NYTimes1948.html

Einstein, Albert (May 1949), "Why Socialism?", Monthly Review, http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm, retrieved 16 January 2006

Einstein, Albert (1950), "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation", Scientific American CLXXXII (4): 13–17

Einstein, Albert (1954), Ideas and Opinions, New York: Random House, ISBN 0-517-00393-7

Einstein, Albert (1969) (in German), Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel 1916–1955, Munich: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung, ISBN 388682005X

Einstein, Albert (1979), Autobiographical Notes, Paul Arthur Schilpp (Centennial ed.), Chicago: Open Court, ISBN 0-875-48352-6 . The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.

Collected Papers: Stachel, John, Martin J. Klein, a. J. Kox, Michel Janssen, R. Schulmann, Diana Komos Buchwald and others (Eds.) (1987–2006), The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol. 1–10, Princeton University Press, http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/writings.html#papers Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page

See also

	Biography portal
	Physics portal
	Science portal

	Book: Albert Einstein
Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

• The Einstein Theory of Relativity (educational film about the theory of relativity)
• German inventors and discoverers
• Heinrich Burkhardt
• Hermann Einstein
• Historical Museum of Bern (Einstein museum)
• History of gravitational theory
• Introduction to special relativity
• List of coupled cousins
• Relativity priority dispute
• Sticky bead argument
• Summation convention
• List of Jewish Nobel laureates

Notes

1. ^ "Albert's intellectual growth was strongly fostered at home. His mother, a talented pianist, ensured the children's musical education. His father regularly read Schiller and Heine aloud to the family. Uncle Jakob challenged Albert with mathematical problems, which he solved with 'a deep feeling of happiness'." More significant were the weekly visits of Max Talmud from 1889 through 1894 during which time he introduced the boy to popular scientific texts that brought to an end a short-lived religious phase, convincing him that 'a lot in the Bible stories could not be true'. A textbook of plane geometry that he quickly worked through led on to an avid self-study of mathematics, several years ahead of the school curriculum. ^[15]

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Further reading

• Fölsing, Albrecht (1997): Albert Einstein: A Biography. New York: Penguin Viking. (Translated and abridged from the German by Ewald Osers.)
• Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993). The Private Lives of Albert Einstein. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0571167449.
• Hoffmann, Banesh, with the collaboration of Helen Dukas (1972): Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel. London: Hart-Davis, MacGibbon Ltd.
• Isaacson, Walter (2007): Einstein: His Life and Universe. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, New York. ISBN 9780743264730
• Moring, Gary (2004): The complete idiot's guide to understanding Einstein ( 1st ed. 2000). Indianapolis IN: Alpha books (Macmillan USA). ISBN 0028631803
• Pais, Abraham (1982): Subtle is the Lord: The science and the life of Albert Einstein. Oxford University Press. The definitive biography to date.
• Pais, Abraham (1994): Einstein Lived Here. Oxford University Press.
• Parker, Barry (2000): Einstein's Brainchild. Prometheus Books. A review of Einstein's career and accomplishments, written for the lay public.
• Schweber, Sylvan S. (2008): Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674028289.
• Oppenheimer, J.R. (1971): "On Albert Einstein," p. 8–12 in Science and synthesis: an international colloquium organized by Unesco on the tenth anniversary of the death of Albert Einstein and Teilhard de Chardin, Springer-Verlag, 1971, 208 pp. (Lecture delivered at the UNESCO House in Paris on 13 December 1965.) Also published in The New York Review of Books, 17 March 1966, On Albert Einstein by Robert Oppenheimer

• Works by Albert Einstein (public domain in Canada)
• The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland, April 1997, http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Einstein.html, retrieved 14 June 2009
• Why Socialism? by Albert Einstein, Monthly Review, May 1949
• Einstein's Personal Correspondence: Religion, Politics, The Holocaust, and Philosophy Shapell Manuscript Foundation
• FBI file on Albert Einstein
• Nobelprize.org Biography:Albert Einstein
• The Einstein You Never Knew — slideshow by Life magazine
• Albert Einstein — videos

 

SYLVESTER JAMES GATES

 

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Sylvester James Gates
Born	December 15, 1950
Nationality	United States
Fields	Physics
Institutions	University of Maryland, College Park
Alma mater	Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Known for	Supersymmetry, String Theory, Supergravity

Sylvester James (Jim) Gates, Jr. (born December 15, 1950) is an American theoretical physicist. He received BS and PhD degrees from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the latter in 1977. His doctoral thesis was the first thesis at MIT to deal with supersymmetry. Gates is currently the John S. Toll Professor of Physics at the University of Maryland, College Park and serves on President Barack Obama's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology.^[1] He is known for his work on supersymmetry, supergravity, and superstring theory. In 1984, working with M. T. Grisaru, M. Rocek, W. Siegel, Gates co-authored Superspace, the first comprehensive book on the topic of supersymmetry.^[2]

Gates has been featured extensively on many NOVA PBS programs on physics, most notably "The Elegant Universe" in 2003. In 2006, he completed a DVD series titled Superstring Theory: The DNA of Reality for The Teaching Company composed of 24 half-hour lectures to make the complexities of unification theory comprehensible to laypeople.^[3] During the 2008 World Science Festival, Prof. Gates narrated ^[4] a ballet "The Elegant Universe", where he gave a public presentation of the artistic forms^[5] connected to his scientific research.

Dr. Gates has been nominated by the Department of Energy to be one of the USA Science and Engineering Festival's Nifty Fifty Speakers who will speak about his work and career to middle and high school students in October 2010.^[6] He is currently a Martin Luther King Jr. Visiting Scholar at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) for the 2010-2011 School Year, and is a Residential Scholar at MIT's Simmons Hall. He is also currently continuing his research in String Theory, Supersymmetry, and Supergravity at the MIT Center of Theoretical Physics. He is a member of the board of trustees of Society for Science & the Public.

[edit] Book

• L'arte della fisica - Stringhe, superstringhe, teoria unificata dei campi, 2006, Di Renzo Editore, ISBN 8883231554.

[edit] Notes

1. ^ "UMD PCAST announcement". University of Maryland. http://www.newsdesk.umd.edu/scitech/print.cfm?articleID=1882. Retrieved 2009-04-30.
2. ^ Gates, S. James; M. T. Grisaru, M. Rocek and W. Siegel (1983). "Superspace". American Institute of Physics. http://arxiv.org/find/hep-th/1/AND+au:+gates+ti:+lesson/0/1/0/all/0/1.
3. ^ "Sylvester James Gates Jr. lecture". News@Concordia. [[Concordia University (Quebec)|]]. http://news.concordia.ca/faculties/007534.shtml.
4. ^ "Sylvester James Gates Jr. Ballet narration". http://www.nyas.org/snc/podcastdetail.asp?id=1787.
5. ^ "Sylvester James Gates, art and science". http://www.nyas.org/snc/elegant.html.
6. ^ http://www.usasciencefestival.org/2010festival/niftyfifty

Gates, Jr., Sylvester James 1950–

Contemporary Black Biography | 1997 | Stratton, Steve | 700+ words | COPYRIGHT 2005 Thomson Gale. (Hide copyright information)Copyright

Sylvester James Gates, Jr. 1950–

Professor of physics

At a Glance…

Encouraged by Parents

The Game of Physics

String Theory

Sources

“Image not available for copyright reasons”

To borrow a phrase from the television series Star Trek, Sylvester James Gates, Jr. has made a career out of “going where no man has gone before. “For the past 20 years, he has been on the leading edge of exploring and trying to explain the basic building blocks of the universe. His work in the area of mathematics and physics has led to “four notable contributions and many smaller ones to the creation of a new theory that promises to finally explain the ultimate nature of the universe,” according to the Washington Post. This theory is called superstring theory.

Gates has taught at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Howard University, and the University of Maryland at College Park. He has written one book and edited two others. He has published more than 120 research articles in dozens of the world’s most important physics journals. He has given numerous presentations about his research to both fellow researchers and the general public. Yet with all this keeping him busy, Gates also finds time for young students, too. He has spoken at many schools in the Washington, DC. area. He also advises many graduate students in their research. He is well liked by his students and had been featured on television shows.

Sylvester James (Jim) Gates, Jr. was born on December 15, 1950, in Tampa, Florida. His father, Sylvester James Gates, Sr., was a career military man in the U.S. Army for 24 years, before retiring to work for the postal service and being a union organizer. Because of his father’s work, Jim Gates, along with his younger sister and two younger brothers, moved often during their youth. Gates had lived in six cities by the time he reached the sixth grade.

 

When Gates was 11 years old, his mother, Charlie Engels Gates, died of cancer. Outlook stated that Gates “invented a vivid fantasy life, playing games of space travel and rockets,” in order to escape the grief over her death. Explaining that “Gates’s mother’s death made clear the difference between reality and fantasy,” Gates himself told Outlook, “When my mother died I grew up immediately, emotionally.”

Gates recalled that his interest in science began early in life. He remembers his father bringing home a book on

At a Glance…

Born Sylvester James Gates, Jr., December 15, 1950, in Tampa, Florida; son of Charlie Engels, a homemaker and Sylvester James Gates, Sr., a career mil itary employee, postal worker and union organizer; married Dianna Elizabeth Abney, a pediatridan; children: one son and one daughter.fducat/on; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, B.S. in physics, 1973, B.S. in mathematics, 1973, Ph.D. in physics, 1977.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, assistant professor of applied mathematics, 1982-84; University of Maryland at CollegePark, associateprofessorof physics, Î 98488, professor of Physics, 1984-88; Howard University, professor and physics departmentchair, 1991-93. Coauthor (with M. T. Grisaru, M. Rocek, and W. Siegel), Superspaœ, orí001 Lessons inSupersym-metry, Benjamin-Cummings, 1983. Coeditor (with R. N. Mohapatra),

 PrœeedingsoftheFirstlntemationalWŒkshopon Strings, Compos’iteStruauresandCosmology, WorldScientific Publishing, 1987, (withC. R. Preitschopf and W.Siegel), Praœedngso/theSfr ing, 1989.

Awards: Natl.Merit Scholarship, 1969-73; National Science Foundation Postdoctoral Fellowship, 1981-82; Martin LutherKingAward, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1985; 21 ^St Century Initiative Award, Howard University, 1992; 1993 NationalTechnical AchieveroftheYear Award, National Technical Association, 1993; 1993 Physidstof the Year Awarct National Technical Association, 1993; University ofMaryland Outstanding Minority Teacher Award, 1996.

 

Memberships: Natl. Society of Black Physicists, (president, 1992-94); American Physical Society, (general councillor, 1997-2001).

Addresses:Office-do Office of Univ.Relations, 2101 Tumer Building, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742-5411. E-mail-gates@umdhep.urnd.edu

planets. He also read many science fiction novels and comic books. “Somehow seeing those images and reading those things spurred me to create fantasy places in my mind. In the end, I wound up drawing some comic book characters of my own and creating adventures with them,” he said in the Washington Post.

Encouraged by Parents

Gates also believes that his father encouraged his interest in science. “When I was a kid, I had lots of wild questions. And I can not remember my dad ever saying that he did not have time to answer, he said in Outlook. “He was a disciplinarian,” recalled Gates in the Washington Post, “and, frankly, I attribute my success, whatever that may be, to picking the right father. He’s still one of my very best friends.” When his father remarried, Jim’s new stepmother helped to reinforce the need for education. She was a teacher and made sure that access to books in the home was a priority.

When Gates was ready to begin the sixth grade his family moved to Orlando, Florida. It was the first time that he had to attend a segregated school. “I had been used to living with people from many different cultures,” Gates said in Outlook. “It was not an issue in my life. Suddenly we were moved to an environment in which we were forced to go to all-black schools.” Gates went on to say that he had not encountered racism until that time.

At the new school Gates and a friend started a chess club. “The matches were always at what we called the white high schools, “Gates said in the Washington Post. The difference in learning environments was profound. “It’d be an amazing experience because you’d see audio-visual equipment that we had no dreams of having, swimming pools, tennis courts—things that were just unimaginable. So I understood pretty quickly that the cards were really stacked against us [blacks].” Gates believes that caring black teachers made up for some of the things lacking in the poorly funded black schools with their sorely outdated textbooks. Meanwhile, Gates’s chess team never lost a match to a team from a white high school according to the Washington Post.

The Game of Physics

In the 11th grade, Gates took a course in physics. He has said that he knew immediately that it was what he wanted to do with his life. “To me, mathematics was something we did in our heads and was thus, almost by definition, an element of our imaginations,” he said in the Washington Post. “It was a game whose rules we learned to play in school. But like every game of fantasy, those rules could be changed at our desire.” Physics showed Gates how to apply those mathematical rules to real life. It showed him that real events in life could be explained mathematically through science.

Gate’s advice to the young is to take algebra. As he commented in Outlook, “I tell them that if as a ninth grader you choose not to take an algebra course, 57 percent of the possible jobs you could have had will no longer be accessible. You have a choice. You can be poor in this society, or you can choose to get an education. And it starts with algebra.” Continuing to discuss education Gates told Outlook, “It is not clear to me .that we do a good job of getting our kids to understand that education is the basis of high-tech industry and the basis of their future. I see messages that say, “become a basketball player, become an entertainer, you’ll make millions of dollars.’”

 

Though Gates always did well in school, he almost did not attend college. Though several colleges had contacted him about attending their school, Gates was afraid to apply for fear of being rejected. “I came from an intact family with a father who was an excellent role model,” said Gates in Outlook. “And yet by the time I was a senior graduating from high school I had bought into the idea that this society would not afford me the opportunities it did for other bright kids.”

Gates’s father eventually convinced him to apply, and, happily, he was accepted at the MIT, one of the most academically exclusive colleges in the country. Gates completed all of his education there, receiving bachelor’s degrees in both physics and mathematics and a Ph.D. in physics. His accomplishments were made possible in part through a National Merit Scholarship, loans, and jobs. He then went on to earn post doctoral fellowships at both Harvard and the California Institute of Technology.

While he was in his doctoral program, Gates met and became friends with another student, Ron McNair, the physicist and astronaut that would later be killed in the 1986 space shuttle Challenger explosion. Gates had applied to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to be an astronaut and made several rounds of cuts but did not make the final cut. In the Washington Post, Gates said of McNair, “We approached physics problems in different ways. I’d naturally take one approach, but he would come at a problem from an entirely different direction. We both got the same answer. That taught me the value of looking for different approaches to a problem.”

String Theory

Gates’s main focus has been in trying to understand the universe at the smallest levels. Up until the 1970s, scientists thought that the universe was based on smaller and smaller particles: atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons; protons and neutrons are composed of quarks; and science wondered whether quarks and electrons were composed of yet smaller particles. Experiments seemed to say no. Until recently, the assumption in these experiments had been that everything in the universe from quarks to planets are points. String theory suggested that the smallest particles are not points but strings. The strings may be so very small that even to the strongest microscope strings appear to be points.

 

String theory originated because the two main theories about the behavior of “stuff” in the universe-Einstein’s Theory of Relativity and the Theory of Quantum Mechanics-have different ways of explaining gravity. Physicists such as Gates have spent the last 25 years or so trying to figure out a way to join these two theories with an explanation for their differences. “All the physics that we’ve done for 2,000 years has been based on the notion that when you get matter in its smallest pieces, essentially, you’re looking at billiard balls,” Gates told Outlook. “That’s what a point particle is. Gravity wouldn’t go together on the small scale of this model. If you replace the notion of tiny billiard balls with tiny pieces of spaghetti, it seems to work.”

“There’ve been lots of other attempts to reconcile relativistic gravity and quantum theory, but they’ve all failed,” Gates told the Washington Post. “The only survivor is string theory. A lot of us think it is right and that we may have finally answered the great question.” Most of the work Gates does in his field involves creating and solving mathematical equations that try to explain what happens in the world at that small level, a task where he gets to use that imagination that used to create rockets and cartoon characters. “To me,” he said in the Washington Post, “this is the most intellectually exciting thing to think about—and the most fun.”

Sources

Books

McMurray, Emily J., ed., Notable Twentieth Century Scientists, Gale, 1995.

Periodicals

Outlook (University of Maryland at College Park), September 6, 1994, p.8

Washington Post, December 11, 1996, p. H1; December 11, 1996, p. H6.

—Steve Stratton

 

 

time warp

n.

A hypothetical discontinuity or distortion occurring in the flow of time that would move events from one time period to another or suspend the passage of time.

 

 

time warp

n

1. any distortion of space-time

2. (Physics / General Physics) a hypothetical distortion of time in which people and events from one age can be imagined to exist in another age

3. Informal an illusion in which time appears to stand still he is living in a time warp

 

BOTE FROM DEE:  I ADDED UP ALL THE NUMBERS OF STAIRS, TABLES, AND CHAIRS IN THE RESTAURANT IN THE DREAM AND IT CAME TO 149.  ON OUR WEBSITE, WE USE THAT NUMBER A LOT, BUT CHECK OOUT THE COINCIDENCE TO  THIS ONE:

149.1 BEC, 918 and 9180
Date: 06/16/04

Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC),
918 and 9180

Once upon a time I wondered if one electron had 918 parts. Using an internal structure based upon grids of the 64 kua I-Ching and its spheric equivalent, the 4x4x4 cube molded into a spherical hemisphere, I formed 4 levels of 16.

This model not only divided the magic cube into 4 integrated magic square, 2D grids of 16, it also incorporated the strange number 918 which has morphing association with its partners: 189, 891 and 981 through mathematic manipulation called integration.

All of this was leading to a single electron having 918 parts or 918 photons. Doubling these we have the 1836 Mev of the electron/proton ratio, which was assuming that one electron required a partner electron. However, an electron may require a partner called a positron. No matter what the partner is called, the electron cannot exist by itself.

Adding Douglass White's information, he seems to dismiss 919 (my 918) as implausible, pertaining to his "mass ratio between epo (epo = electron-positron pair) and neutron". However, he raises 918 by a factor of 10 which he develops into 9180 electron-positron pairs, saying, "such an entity would have 0 charge: it would be neutral".

So we still have to explore a hypothetical 918 photons per electron, indicating 1/2 of the 1836 Mev electron-proton ratio. Then we will examine White's 919 as a poor choice for the "epo-neutron mass ratio" and then there is White's power of 10.........9180 electron-positron pairs.

Building his theory from string and superstring theory, vibrating in 10 dimensions, he multiplies:

"136 vibrational modes two at a time one for electron, one for positron (as in the epo. epo = electron-positron pair) this would give 136 x 135, or 18,360 different ways for a lepton, joined as an epo, to vibrate in 10 dimensions. (This is Sirag's computation, but he lacked the idea of electron-positron pairs. He ordered them two at a time ". . .e.g., one for proton, one for electron. . .") Thus a combination of 9180 electron-positron pairs would be a very stable arrangement, filling all of the possible vibrational modes in ten dimensions."

Here are my developments followed by White's developments.

17.3 The 4 x 4 x 4 Magic Cube Electron Theory

Magic Cubes Definitions, Formulas, Construction, Combinatorics

Found on 4/13/02: I've made, what I consider a major step toward what I think is the correct Magic Cube associated with the above I-Ching pattern, which is an analysis of the 64 I-Ching kua.

This step in the correspondence between the I-Ching of 64 squares in an 8 x 8 matrix and this 4 x 4 x 4 Magic Cube equivalent, is based upon the theory that the 4 x 4 x 4 = 64 cube units represent the 64 squares of the 8 x 8 I-Ching. Further study should show that the photon moves through this 4 x 4 x 4 Magic Cube in a binary pattern, two photons always being equal, balanced and forward / backward opposed, giving us a picture of the spin 1/2 photon cooper pair.

I noticed that with an overlay of Level 1, 2, 3 and 4 :

1. One from column A 1+48+32+49 = 130 or 1/2 of 260 of the Mayan Tzolkin.
2. Every column adds to 130.
3. Every row adds to 130.
4. Level 1/Column 1/Row 1 + ( correction:Level 4/Column 4/Row 4 ) = 1+64 = 65
5. Level 3/Column 1/Row 4 + Level 2/Column 4/Row 1 = 20+45 = 65

Level 1:	1	63	62	4	Level 2:	48	18	19	45
	60	6	7	57		21	43	42	24
	56	10	11	53		25	39	38	28
	13	51	50	16		36	30	31	33
Level 3:	32	34	35	29	Level 4:	49	15	14	52
	37	27	26	40		12	54	55	9
	41	23	22	44		8	58	59	5
	20	46	47	17		61	3	2	64

Now, I remembered a number from Gary's study that I knew had something to do with the 7 levels of the electron and that number was 918. He had figured out 918's morphed form 198 = COMMUNICATIONS DEVICE and another twist 918 - 819 = 99 = MIND SQUARED = THOUGHT. Gary had defined 9.18, 189, 891 and 918 but I had to ask him to define what 981 was. This proved to be a very complicated task.

981 showed itself to be elusive until Gary did some alphanumeric cross adding on the following words and their numeric equivalents, then 981 manifested:

Gary: "The picture that presented itself as "981" is, in a sense, three dimensional."

"The 981 Picture In Three Parts:

1. THE GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA IS NINE EIGHT ONE = 387
2. THE GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA IS A COMMUNICATION DEVICE = 459
3. THE JEHOVAH SEED = 135"

"387+459+135 = 981"

So the conclusion he arrived at was:

TETRAHEDRAL PYRAMID = 198
27 + 171 = 198 = COMMUNICATION DEVICE

At this point you might ask, why am I trying to tie "tetrahedral pyramid", "communication device", the Giza pyramid, magic cubes and electrons together?

The 4x4x4 Magic Cube Electron Theory

I believe that an electron is an atomic level communications device that works as a magic cube of 4 x 4 x 4. This theory needs more work.

Discovering Some Interesting Numbers

918 photon positions of 1 electron / 666 notes (of the 53 cycles of fifths Hightower) = 1.3783783784, the fine structure constant fractal.

918 (photons per electron) / 64 kua of a 4 x 4 x 4 Magic Cube = 14.34375 (Grace Factor)
14.34375 ^7 power = 918 (the number of photons per electron),
14.34375 ^8 power = 1836 (the atomic weight of the proton).

What this may be telling us is that the number of photons per electron (918) divided by the total Magic Cube, 64 kua (surface of electron), equals the factor 14.34375 (Grace Factor), when raised to the 7th octave note level, as its extremity........transitions, splits, doubles or mirrors itself when raised to its 8th power, which should be the next octave.

Working The 64 I-Ching Magic Squares

I created a drawing of 4 separate, flat, 2D, cubic levels of 4 x 4 magic squares. Matches of 1 and 33, 32 and 64 oscillated between the first 2 top levels and the 2 bottom levels. I began to realize that these 4 levels of 4 groups of 16 cubes were following the pattern mapped by the 8 x 8 I-Ching but it was not being as resonant as I would have liked.

I moved the drawing of 4 groups of 16, around, to a configuration in accord with Buckminster Fullers advice, who said, "the electron is one- layer-thick". This I took to mean a one-layer-sphere of photons. So, upon that advice I attached the 4 groups of 16 together in a manner agreeable with the above 8 x 8 2D I-Ching, so that, when folded left to right, top to bottom, the 4 groups of 16 would form a one-layer-thick sphere.

I then divided this sphere through the equator, plus all the appropriate longitudinal and latitudinal divisions.

The final form is a sphere with 32 magic cubes of 8 sectors AH, in the North and 32 magic cubes of 8 sectors AH in the South, all only one layer thick, thus guaranteeing each magic number in the North has an opposite magic number in the South. Total magic cubes = 64. I still have to confirm that all the magic numbers have their equal and opposite number opposing, but at this point, from past experiments in 2D, I think they will. If the 4 groups of 16 are connected properly, the patterns created by this new arrangement, in the form of a sphere of magic cubes, should match with the 2D, flat form.

4/16/02: In a new drawing, I placed all 4 Levels one above the other in the following order:

1. Level 1 on the bottom.
2. Level 2 over Level 1
3. Level 3 over Level 2
4. Level 4 over Level 3

Sequentially connecting all numbers from 1-64 produced a completely organized bisymmetric, vertical pattern of lines between all 4 Levels. Noted transition points 16/17 and 48/49 representing "brain corpus collosum" transitions between left and right (Arguelles), were found in an alternating fashion as follows: Level 1 (16) to Level 3 (17) and Level 2 (48) to Level 4 (49).

Between the top 2 and the bottom 2 Levels was another crossover of 2 points where all but 2 groups of 4 lines passed through. In other words, all lines but 8 pass through 2 points in the middle of the 4 Levels. This implies, to me, a doubling, a mirror state, a virtual state, a bisymmetry or an elliptic bicentric oscillation rather than a circle of one center.

Further drawings arranged as a sphere, should show the above bisymmetry of a pair of photons, or electrons. I'm not sure which pair we are modeling, (electrons or photons), as we have to model 2 overlapping spheres each with 64 magic squares upon their surface, to understand how the interconnected numbers respond to each other.

---

Integrating (4x16) 64 I-Ching Magic Squares with 16 Dydactic Functions:

Binary space is iterative. The fractal process is expressible in 16 dyadic functions. Let's integrate the 16 functions of 0,1 with the 16 x 4 permutations of the I-Ching by transcribing Levels 1,2,3 and 4 to the Table below:

	f0	f1	f2	f3	f4	f5	f6	f7	f8	f9	f10	f11	f12	f13	f14	f15
Level 4:	0 (49)	0 (15)	0 (14)	0 (52)	0 (12)	0 (54)	0 (55)	0 (9)	1 (8)	1 (58)	1 (59)	1 (5)	1 (61)	1 (3)	1 (2)	1 (64)
Level 3:	0 (32)	0 (34)	0 (35)	0 (29)	1 (37)	1 (27)	1 (26)	1 (40)	0 (41)	0 (23)	0 (22)	0 (44)	1 (20)	1 (46)	1 (47)	1 (17)
Level 2:	0 (48)	0 (18)	1 (19)	1 (45)	0 (21)	0 (43)	1 (42)	1 (24)	0 (25)	0 (39)	1 (38)	1 (28)	0 (36)	0 (30)	1 (31)	1 (33)
Level 1:	0 (1)	1 (63)	0 (62)	1 (4)	0 (60)	1 (6)	0 (7)	1 (57)	0 (56)	1 (10)	0 (11)	1 (53)	0 (13)	1 (51)	0 (50)	1 (16)

Note: 05/09/05 Level 3, f10: Number 33 corrected to number 22.
07/10/05 Level 2, f4: Number 31 corrected to number 21.

Addenda: Function: [(f_n)(p,q)]: F_a(f_i,f_j) -> f_b f_a(f_b,f_j) -> f_c f_a(f_c,f_j) -> .fn...- outputs are fed as inputs into succeeding functions, until the original function is repeated. Jeremy Horne PhD

---

The Prime Number Cross, Courtesy P. Plictha

---

Integrating The Prime Number Cross of P. Plictha, with (4x16) 64 I-Ching Magic Squares and with 16 Dydactic Functions:

(P) denotes all primes from [1]-[64].
0 and 1 denotes binary "off" and "on"
(C) center of primes designates 6 and all multiples of 6
(2 and 3 are not primes - Plictha).
We should begin with number (P1²- Plictha), then 2,3,4 etc.
Should we begin with 0?
If this Table progressed from 0-63 we would have a place for 0.
However, it begins with [1]-[64].
P65 is prime and is off the Table.
C66 is a center multiple of 6 and is off the Table.

	f0	f1	f2	f3	f4	f5	f6	f7	f8	f9	f10	f11	f12	f13	f14	f15
Level 4:	0 (P49)	0 (15)	0 (14)	0 (52)	0 (C12)	0 (C54)	0 (P55)	0 (9)	1 (8)	1 (58)	1 (P59)	1 (P5)	1 (P61)	1 (3)	1 (2)	1 (64)
Level 3:	0 (32)	0 (34)	0 (P35)	0 (P29)	1 (P37)	1 (27)	1 (26)	1 (40)	0 (P41)	0 (P23)	0 (22)	0 (44)	1 (20)	1 (46)	1 (P47)	1 (P17)
Level 2:	0 (C48)	0 (C18)	1 (P19)	1 (45)	0 (21)	0 (P43)	1 (C42)	1 (C24)	0 (P25)	0 (39)	1 (38)	1 (28)	0 (C36)	0 (C30)	1 (31)	1 (33)
Level 1:	0 (P12)	1 (63)	0 (62)	1 (4)	0 (C60)	1 (C6)	0 (P7)	1 (57)	0 (56)	1 (10)	0 (P11)	1 (P53)	0 (P13)	1 (51)	0 (50)	1 (16)

How Do We Pair These, Above?

Unreality: Pairing (1) and (33), (2) and (34), etc in a previous Table of 64 I-Ching

I-Ching Circle

Note: This arrangement demonstrates that the second half (33-64) is similar to the first half (1-32).

Binary	Center and Prime	Linear Kua Count	Concentric Level frCenter	Movement Code .	Movement Code .	Concentric Level frCenter	Linear Kua Count	Center and Prime	Binary
0	(P12)	1	2	SC	SG	2	33	(33)	1
1	(2)	2	1	BB	BF	1	34	(34)	0
1	(3)	3	8	TC	TG	8	35	(P35)	0
1	(4)	4	7	DB	DF	7	36	(C36)	0
1	(P5)	5	6	DD	DH	6	37	(P37)	1
1	(C6)	6	5	DA	DE	5	38	(38)	1
0	(P7)	7	4	DD	DH	4	39	(39)	0
1	(8)	8	3	DA	DE	3	40	(40)	1
0	(9)	9	3	SB	SF	3	41	(P41)	0
1	(10)	10	4	UC	UG	4	42	(C42)	1
0	(P11)	11	5	UB	UF	5	43	(P43)	0
0	(C12)	12	6	UC	UG	6	44	(44)	0
0	(P13)	13	7	UA	UE	7	45	(45)	1
0	(14)	14	8	TD	TH	8	46	(46)	1
0	(15)	15	1	BA	BE	1	47	(P47)	1
1	(16)	16	2	UD	UH	2	48	(C48)	0
1	(P17)	17	2	SE	SA	2	49	(P49)	0
0	(C18)	18	1	BH	BD	1	50	(50)	0
1	(P19)	19	8	TE	TA	8	51	(51)	1
1	(20)	20	7	DH	DD	7	52	(52)	0
0	(21)	21	6	DF	DB	6	53	(P53)	1
0	(22)	22	5	DG	DC	5	54	(C54)	0
0	(P23)	23	4	DF	DB	4	55	(P55)	0
1	(C24)	24	3	DG	DC	3	56	(56)	0
0	(P25)	25	3	SH	SD	3	57	(57)	1
1	(26)	26	4	UA	UE	4	58	(58)	1
1	(27)	27	5	UH	UD	5	59	(P59)	1
1	(28)	28	6	UE	UA	6	60	(C60)	0
0	(P29)	29	7	UG	UC	7	61	(P61)	1
0	(C30)	30	8	TF	TB	8	62	(62)	0
1	(P31)	31	1	BG	BC	1	63	(63)	1
0	(32)	32	2	UF	UB	2	64	(64)	1

Reality: Inverse pairing (1) and (64), (2) and (63), etc:

Note: This arrangement demonstrates that the second half (64-33) is exactly the inverse of the first half (1-32).

Binary	Center and Prime	Linear Kua Count	Concentric Level frCenter	Movement Code .	Movement Code .	Concentric Level frCenter	Linear Kua Count	Center and Prime	Binary
0	(P12)	1	2	SC	UB	2	64	(64)	1
1	(2)	2	1	BB	BC	1	63	(63)	1
1	(3)	3	8	TC	TB	8	62	(62)	0
1	(4)	4	7	DB	UC	7	61	(P61)	1
1	(P5)	5	6	DD	UA	6	60	(C60)	0
1	(C6)	6	5	DA	UD	5	59	(P59)	1
0	(P7)	7	4	DD	UE	4	58	(58)	1
1	(8)	8	3	DA	SD	3	57	(57)	1
0	(9)	9	3	SB	DC	3	56	(56)	0
1	(10)	10	4	UC	DB	4	55	(P55)	0
0	(P11)	11	5	UB	DC	5	54	(C54)	0
0	(C12)	12	6	UC	DB	6	53	(P53)	1
0	(P13)	13	7	UA	DD	7	52	(52)	0
0	(14)	14	8	TD	TA	8	51	(51)	1
0	(15)	15	1	BA	BD	1	50	(50)	0
1	(16)	16	2	UD	SA	2	49	(P49)	0
1	(P17)	17	2	SE	UH	2	48	(C48)	0
0	(C18)	18	1	BH	BE	1	47	(P47)	1
1	(P19)	19	8	TE	TH	8	46	(46)	1
1	(20)	20	7	DH	UE	7	45	(45)	1
0	(21)	21	6	DF	UG	6	44	(44)	0
0	(22)	22	5	DG	UF	5	43	(P43)	0
0	(P23)	23	4	DF	UG	4	42	(C42)	1
1	(C24)	24	3	DG	SF	3	41	(P41)	0
0	(P25)	25	3	SH	DE	3	40	(40)	1
1	(26)	26	4	UA	DH	4	39	(39)	0
1	(27)	27	5	UH	DE	5	38	(38)	1
1	(28)	28	6	UE	DH	6	37	(P37)	1
0	(P29)	29	7	UG	DF	7	36	(C36)	0
0	(C30)	30	8	TF	TG	8	35	(P35)	0
1	(P31)	31	1	BG	BF	1	34	(34)	0
0	(32)	32	2	UF	SG	2	33	(33)	1

---

Kabbalist Inroads

Article 04 (PDF)

918 - 840 = 78 = numerologic reduction 9 : 3 : 6
9 + 1 + 8 = 18 = 1 + 8 = 9,
8 + 4 + 0 = 12 = 1 + 2 = 3,
7 + 8 = 15 = 1 + 5 = 6 =
9 : 3 : 6

840 = Half coil helix of superstring.

78 = Enfolded (7+5) polygonal sides.

840 x 2 = 1680 UPA turns of each coil x10.

168 = root edge yods of 6x6 enfolded polygons.

Now, let's switch to Ray Tomes ratios, numerologically reduced:
12 : 24 : 34560
3 : 6 : 9

Mirrored, assuming 9's are the limit:
99 - 12 = 87
99 - 24 = 75
99999 - 34560 = 65439

87 : 75 : 65439
6 : 3 : 9

Let's go back and pick up:
918 - 840 = 78 = numerologic reduction 9 : 3 : 6
9 + 1 + 8 = 18 = 1 + 8 = 9,
8 + 4 + 0 = 12 = 1 + 2 = 3,
7 + 8 = 15 = 1 + 5 = 6 =
9 : 3 : 6

Let's arrange this like the Ray Tomes ratios, numerologically reduced:
78 : 840 : 918
7 + 8 = 15 = 1 + 5 = 6,
8 + 4 + 0 = 12 = 1 + 2 = 3,
9 + 1 + 8 = 18 = 1 + 8 = 9
6 : 3 : 9

Mirrored, assuming 9's are the limit:
99 - 78 = 21
999 - 840 = 159
999 - 918 = 81

21 : 159 : 81
2 + 1 = 3,
1 + 5 + 9 = 15 = 1 + 5 = 6,
8 + 1 = 9
3 : 6 : 9

---

Douglass A. White Discovers Similar Ratios

Part 2: Dirac's Equation and the Sea of Negative Energy by D.L. Hotson

Neutrosynthesis

We might say that the Dirac equation, by having only four roots, predicts that everything else, including the neutron, must be made of electrons and positrons. How many epos (epo = electron-positron pair) make a neutron? The question is far from trivial. The answer can not be 919, the mass ratio between epo and neutron. There would be 919 x 2 like charges packed into a tiny space. The binding energy would have to be 80 or 90%, to hold such an aggregation together, even if it were mostly "charge condensed." So 919 epos would mass, at most, about 370 electron masses. We might keep in mind the Pauli exclusion principle, which regulates how many electrons may occupy a given shell in an atom by the possible number of different vibrational modes (different quantum numbers).

White's Intuitive, Irrational Logic

We have seen earlier that for reasons of symmetry the universe must have ten dimensions, six of them (the negative energy realm of the BEC) in "imaginary" directions with respect to our four (Dirac, 1963; Sirag, 1977b, 2000). How many different ways can an electron or positron vibrate in ten dimensions? We might answer that by an analogy with the periodic table.

The Periodic Table/10 Dimension Analogy

Each electron shell contains the number of electrons that can vibrate in different ways. (The electron's quantum numbers.) At present, the periodic table consists of 100 elements in eight complete shells (if you count the rare earth elements) with 16 or so elements in an incomplete ninth shell. (Element 118 was claimed to have been synthesized at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 1999, but they have recently retracted that claim [Gorman, 2001].)

The Same 10 Vertical Levels of the Periodic Table:

0.8 Lambda

The Lambdoma Mandalas, 16 x 16, found at the bottom of the page, at Barbara Hero's website has interesting patterns similar to the Galaxy Pattern called the Periodic Table as Concentric Rings of 16 of the following site: Periodic Table

The Periodic Table as Concentric Rings of 16, having 10 levels, also seem to be connected to the 10D Theory of the following site called 10 Dimensional Torque and Consciousness: Virtual Chaos

(Note: The Periodic Table shows 10 vertical levels wherein elements are placed. These levels are to be evaluated as to why there are 10 corresponding to 10d Theory. Also, the red elements shown in the Concentric Rings Theory are the monoatomic elements, superconducting, in this linear sequence: Co, Rh, Ir, Pt, Pd, Ni, Cu, Ag, Au and Hg......This pattern matches the pattern of growth of the Concentric Rings Theory. Who can foresee the benefits of a superconducting, levitating, monoatomic metal?

Since the Lamdoma, Galaxy Pattern, and the above 10D Torus shape represent spherical systems, here is the site of the

Periodic Table of Elements in circular format By Sean D. Birkel.

Completing that shell would give 118 elements, and a tenth complete shell would add another 18, for a total of 136. So if elements were stable to atomic number 136, element 136 would be a noble gas with 136 electrons in 10 complete shells. This means that there are 136 different ways for electrons to vibrate in 10 shells. Each of these shells amounts to an additional degree of freedom for the vibrating electron. If we substitute 10 degrees of freedom, or dimensions, for these 10 shells, it seems inescapable that there again would be 136 different ways for electrons to vibrate in 10 dimensions.

100 elements in 8 shells, 118 elements in 10 shells for a total of 136 elements = 136 ways electrons vibrate in 10 dimensions. Is this logic. Is the atomic levels logical?

These numbers figure prominently in one of the possible designs for a neutron made of electron-positron pairs. This model was largely suggested by SaulPaul Sirag (1977a) as a "combinatorial" model of the proton. He, however, considered it mere number-juggling. The last time I talked to him, he was no longer interested in it, so I "pirate it" without scruple. With a few minor additions and changes, it turns out to be a plausible model of the neutron.

Eddington's Attempt

. . . From Eddington's group theoretical point of view, creatures to whom spacetime has four dimensions will find algebraic structures having 10 elements and 136 elements playing a very fundamental role. Eddington attempted, unsuccessfully, to derive the proton-electron mass ratio from the two numbers 10 and 136, together with the number of unity, 1. . . Eddington's 1, 10, and 136 are members of a wellknown mathematical series that goes 1, 10, 45, 136, 325. . .etc. . .The next number in that series is 666. (Sirag, 1977b).

Eddington's Maths Agree with Dirac and Einstein's GR

Eddington's series is (n 2 )(n 2 + 1)/2, n = 1, 2, 3, etc. As Sirag points out, this group theoretical point of view accords with Dirac's above statement that four dimensional symmetry requires ten dimensions of curvature, or degrees of freedom, in General Relativity (Dirac, 1963).

String and Superstring Theories Require Space of 10 dimensions

Several of the string and superstring theories also require a space of ten dimensions (Sirag, 2000), and as we saw, an electron can vibrate in 136 different ways in ten dimensions. If we order these 136 vibrational modes two at a time one for electron, one for positron (as in the epo) this would give 136 x 135, or 18,360 different ways for a lepton, joined as an epo, to vibrate in 10 dimensions. (This is Sirag's computation, but he lacked the idea of electron-positron pairs. He ordered them two at a time ". . .e.g., one for proton, one for electron. . .")

135 x 136 = 18,360 ways a lepton vibrates in 10 dimensions

Thus a combination of 9180 electron-positron pairs would be a very stable arrangement, filling all of the possible vibrational modes in ten dimensions. We might imagine them arrayed in a 10 dimensional vortex or "hypersphere."

18,360 / 2 = 9180 epo (electron-positron pairs).
9180 = 918 x 10.

The BEC Connection

(Note that this arrangement would come about in the negative energy BEC. As is well known, the only way that a BEC can rotate is in a vortex.) Moreover, Krisch (1987) has shown that colliding protons act like little vortices, shoving each other around preferentially in their spin directions. What would be the mass of such an aggregation? Well, in quantum theory, one measures the energy, or mass, by taking the temporal sine attribute of the Y wave. Since time is only one of the 10 dimensions, this would give the aggregation a mass of 18360/10, or 1836 electronmasses. Since it is composed of 9180 electron-positron pairs, such an entity would have 0 charge: it would be neutral.

..."measures the energy, or mass.....taking the temporal sine attribute of the Y wave. Since time is only one of the 10 dimensions, this would give the aggregation a mass of 18360/10, or 1836 electronmasses".

All symmetries are conserved in this arrangement, with exactly equal amounts of matter and antimatter. There is no reason why such an entity might not be produced, and expelled from the BEC (thrust into "our reality") whenever the random fluctuations of the BEC produced a positive energy of 1836 electronmasses, and spin energy in all ten dimensions. (The suggestion is that it would be produced in a vorticular "storm" in the BEC, which would have spin energy in all ten dimensions.) Moreover, since it has only 10% positive energy and 90% negative or "binding" energy, such an entity would be stable despite packing 9180 charges of like polarity into a very small hyperspace. This is the Sirag model of the nucleon, slightly modified. Note that in our BEC of unlimited density, there is already an electron and a positron in exactly the positions required for this synthesis (nothing needs to move), so only the positive energy and the spin is required to produce a neutron.

We now have the added problem of wondering if perfectly balanced amounts of matter-antimatter is not the rule. According to the neutrino's basic makeup, as Harold tells it, it is made of B. Fuller asymmetric, unbalanced AAB-ABB mite type parts in a formulae, 3/2 x 2/3 = 1 quantum, discussed by Harold. As we know already, this neutrino may be called several other basic building block names such as the Anu, the smallest unit of creation. The Anu is associated with a formulae in a 5/7 ratio: PHI = 7 / 5 PI / e.

Moreover, some 90% of the epos that make up the "Sirag model" have 0 spin, being pure one-dimensional vibrations in imaginary directions. The remaining 10% share "real" angular momentum, mostly canceling, which must, overall, amount to spin 1/2. But as this is a "real" spin, there is nothing to say that a "real" extended neutron with the large "real" mass of some eye is not "really" spinning with a "real" angular momentum of 1/2. In order to obey FermiDirac statistics, it must have this half-integer angular momentum, but it is not necessary to assign that spin to an individual electron or epo constituent when it can simply be a property of the extended neutron itself.

Further On, White Finds 918, Again.

The Strong Nuclear Force

However, the prime merit of this model has to be its representation of the strong nuclear force. Here we need to note a strange coincidence: the mass of the proton, in electronmasses, is roughly the same as the strength of the proton's strong force, in electron-forces. (Mass of proton: 1836 electron masses. Strength of the electromagnetic force: the "fine structure constant" a = e^2 /hc = 1/137; strength of strong force: g^2 /hc = ~15. Ratio: ~15 x 137, somewhere around 2000 [Shankar, 1994].)

Thus the ratios of the masses and of the forces are roughly the same, "around 2000." This is a major clue to the nature of the "strong force." Gravitation and the Coulomb force both have simple inverse square "shapes" that operate over long distances.

Theoretically, at least, they never drop to zero. However, the shape of the strong force between nucleons is radically different and very peculiar. Up to a distance of around a fermi (10 15 m.), it is very strongly repulsive, keeping the nucleons apart. Then, for no apparent good reason, it changes abruptly to very strongly attractive, then drops off very rapidly, so that at a distance of around three fermi's it becomes immeasurable. This peculiar shape has never been successfully modeled by any theory. Note how current theory, in which the fudge is an accepted scientific procedure, "solves" this problem. Since current theory can't model this observed force, it simply ignores it, and instead invents (fudges) an unobserved (fifth!) force carried by eight "gluons" (designed to be unobservable) between eighteen or thirtysix "quarks" (also designed to be unobservable) inside the nucleon. It then "suggests" that this fudged gluon force in some unspecified way "leaks out" of the nucleon to make up the peculiar shape of the measured strong force. However, our "epo model" of the nucleon models this very peculiar shape simply and intuitively. Because of the uncertainty principle, the nucleon, with its measured diameter of around 1.9 fermi's, can not be a perfect sphere, but must be a pulsating spheroid.

However, the epos that make it up have "asymptotic freedom"Ñthey vibrate individually, and each lepton is free to form a relationship with any available antiparticle. This means that, as two nucleons approach each other, at a distance of about three fermi's, electron positron pairs will begin to form, not just within the nucleons, but between them. (Pairs of "internucleon" epos would have to form at the same time, keeping the total number of paired charges in each nucleon at 9180.) This would cause a strong, shortrange attraction between the nucleons as more and more pairs formed. This would increase to a maximum at around 1.5 fermi's, after which it would rapidly turn into a strong repulsion (since the individual epos have to maintain their average 1.87 fermi separation), keeping the nucleons a stable distance from each other.

Moreover, a maximum of 918 such "internucleon" pairs could form, the number vibrating in the direction joining the two nucleons, one-tenth of the total. This would give the interaction the strength of 1836e, and exactly explain the strength of the strong force, "about 2000 times as strong as the Coulomb force" (Shankar, 1994).

Now, what is the chance that a completely wrong model of the nucleon would exactly match both the strength and the very peculiar shape of this most individual of forces? After fifty or so years of effort, the huge physics establishment admittedly has failed utterly to provide a model that comes close to matching that peculiar shape of the nuclear force. Yet Dirac's equation provides a model that fits like lock and key.

Conclusions

What do you make of 918 photons per electron or 918 "internucleon pairs" both being 1/10th of the 9180 charges of Sirac? What does the strange equation mean when we divide 918 by the infamous demonic number 666, the end of Sirac's series, which just happens to also represent 53 cycles of musical 5ths, giving us a fractal of the fine-structure number 137? Why does 918 photons or 918 internucleon pairs, when divided by the, seemingly unrelated, number of kua of the famous I-Ching, number 64, and after multiplying the resulting factor by the 7th and 8th power, gives both 918 and 1836, again, both being the number of photons per electron, 918, or "internucleon pairs", 918, and the electron-proton mass ratio, 1836?

When two "nucleons approach each other, at a distance of about three fermi's, electron positron pairs will begin to form, not just within the nucleons, but between them, causing a strong, shortrange attraction between the nucleons as more and more pairs formed. This would increase to a maximum at around 1.5 fermi's, after which it would rapidly turn into a strong repulsion (since the individual epos have to maintain their average 1.87 fermi separation), keeping the nucleons a stable distance from each other."

Is it dawning on you that at the centers of these electron-positron pairs exist double-center ellipses, where the strong force oscillates a strong attraction and a strong repulsion, both at the same time, in two Anu vortexes?

Strange, but intuitive, goings-on. Perhaps we will never understand how to deal with these "coincidences" as long as we don't catch on that there is a SuperScience here, of BEC space, that crosses all borders.

Impossible Correspondence Index

© Copyright. Robert Grace. 2004

what is bec space?

 

1. BEC: Temperature and Absolute Zero

   The coldest place in nature is the depths of outer space. There it is 3 ... That was what they needed to do to see Bose-Einstein condensation.

   www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/bec/temperature.html - Cached
   

2. Bose–Einstein condensate - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

   • Einstein's...|
   • Models beyond...|
   • Discovery|
   • Velocity-distribu...

   A Bose–Einstein condensate ( BEC) is a state of matter of a dilute gas of weakly interacting ... since the atoms are trapped in a particular region of space, their ...

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose–Einstein_condensate -

   More results from en.wikipedia.org »

3. Becquerel - MS Paint Adventures Wiki - Adventures, characters ...

   It is possible that Bec is controlling time and space so that he may keep his doings a secret from his young charge. Bec's face, outlined on a Pumpkin.

   mspaintadventures.wikia.com/wiki/Becquerel

 

 

 

 

 

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